By Samer Abboud

In his book Syria, Samer Abboud embarks on a thorough examination of the underlying causes of the Syrian conflict (2011-present), the fragmentation of rebel groups battling the Assad regime, foreign interference and actors, and the severe humanitarian crisis that has unfolded as a result. Abboud begins his book by laying the foundation for understanding Syria’s inclusion among the Middle Eastern and North African countries that were protesting oppression during the so-called Arab Spring. Several of these originating factors Abboud outlines include: the deficiency of freedom of expression; corruption; poor socioeconomic conditions; diminishing standards of living; high unemployment; and the increasing costs of living. 

Abboud examines Syria through a historical lens, highlighting the deep social transformations the country has experienced. From Ottoman rule and the French Mandate, Syria’s evolving political landscape Abboud exposes deep-rooted institutional issues, particularly in relation to the  Ba’athist government towards society at large. One institutional issue that Abboud raises which is directly correlated to the constant issue of oppression and human rights abuse is the Governmental Non-Governmental Organisations (GONGOs), women’s rights, and human rights organisations. These organisations had existed prior to the Ba’ath party’s assumption of absolute political power in the 1960s – after their rise to power many of these organisations ceased to exist or decreased their activities. In the early 2000s, many human rights organisations were once again established, but those such as women’s groups were not seen as menacing to the regime due to their non-governmental targeting goals. These organisations were permitted as a monitored area for limited forms of activism. Abboud makes an important connection in regards to the difference in treatment of human rights organisations versus social organisations that would preclude the later protests of human right’s abuse and regime corruption. The Assad regime viewed these organisations as challenging to their security. Instead, those associated with such organisations were intimidated, imprisoned or worse for their activism. Abboud places Syria in a larger context of Middle Eastern regimes, where there is a massive disconnect between government and people; where corruption and mistreatment are rife.

A host of issues that include historical grievances, government (mis) management, economic conditions, and political-security issues would help fan the flames of unrest reaching from Tunisia to Egypt and onto Yemen, Libya, Syria, Bahrain and beyond when the people took to the streets to express grievances. Although the situations in each of these countries differ from one another in unique manners, they all exposed various underlying socio-political and economic fractures within society at large. The Middle East was forever altered by the jarring self-immolation of Mohammed Bouazizi, a struggling Tunisian street vendor, who had been humiliated by local police and shunned by his government when asking for assistance in his case of confiscated street wares. His haunting last words were, “How do you expect me to earn a living?” His words tell of the struggle that many across the Middle East, including Syrians, encounter while facing high unemployment, police corruption, and poor economic conditions. Bouazizi’s death became a catalyst for widespread protests across the MENA region. Abboud connects the upheaval that spread throughout the region to Syria’s own demonstrations which morphed into a civil war. 

Abboud begins the section on Syria’s protests by recounting the story of the young schoolboys from Dar’a, who were arrested, detained, and tortured for spray painting, “The people want the downfall of the regime.” Syrians, incensed by the police brutality towards the boys, took to the streets, by the thousands, as an expression of solidarity against the injustices they experienced for decades. These protests morphed into a cry for the release of the boys, and for the countless political prisoners who had long been detained. Though Abboud describes this protest as a national movement, he acknowledges that it was originally not organised. However, many Syrians shared common goals for transforming their country. One demand included a progressive transformation of President Bashar Al-Assad’s regime, while others who were less afraid to speak out against the regime wanted its total removal. Other demands included the creation of systems to combat economic inequality and poverty, and defund the wealthy clique that financially floats the Assad regime. 

The Assad family has been in power since 1971 and many hoped that Bashar would modernise Syria and develop society more than his father Hafiz Al-Assad did. While Syria looked different at the start of the civil war in 2011, the changes were not what people desired, and, instead, Assad would further transform the economy in a way that primarily benefited elite minorities, such as the Alawite and their allies. Rural workers and the impoverished suffered immensely as a result of such forms of corruption in the economy, which highlighted the sectarian division.

Abboud does an exceptional job of outlining the various groups of Syrians who made up the protest movements and militias. He categorises the groups into secular and educated middle class from urban areas, tribal Syrians, political activists and Islamists, and unemployed marginalised urban Syrians. This book makes a vital point to note the diversity and meticulously researched analysis of the Syrian conflict, tracing its origins from the early stages of the protest to the ongoing civil war. As explored throughout the book, the protestors were of all ages, genders, socioeconomic backgrounds, various education levels, the unemployed to seasoned professionals, and non-religious to religious activists. This demonstrates how this movement transcended socioeconomic and ideological boundaries, uniting Syrians in their demand for political reforms and greater freedoms. Later in the book, Abboud continues in great detail to examine the many external and internal groups, other than protestors, that emerge to fight regime forces for control over Syrian territory. There are many active internal groups such as the Free Syrian Army (FSA), standing in opposition to Assad’s regime. Russia is one of Assad’s most staunch allies, supplying weapons and continuing trade, however, Russia does not necessarily provide support in accordance to Assad’s agenda, but rather for its own self interests which include power projections into the MENA region. The Islamic State of Iraq and as-Sham (ISIS) holds a stronghold in central and northern parts of Syria. Iran is another ally of Assad, further contributing to the  complexity and longevity of the conflict

Abboud’s Syria is a well written and comprehensive analysis from the beginning phases of the Syrian conflict until the present day. Through clear and well-structured chapters, Abboud equips the reader with a deep understanding of how localised protest movements evolved into a protracted and complex civil war, with no resolution in sight. Abboud is correct in his reflection regarding that, although there is no one solution to the ongoing Syrian civil war, any solution  begins with Syrians themselves. However, international efforts should also be a part of a larger solution in ending the violence, providing humanitarian assistance, and laying the foundation for a prosperous Syrian society. Abboud’s Syria is a highly recommended text for those interested in Syria’s contemporary history.